Differences in Stress and Coping for Mothers and Fathers

Research conducted on families of children with disabilities shows that family cohesion and positive family outcomes are influenced by how mothers and fathers cope with raising their child with disabilities.

To read entire paper, click attachment below.

Effects of Maternal Prenatal Stress on Infant Outcomes - A Synthesis of the Literature

There is growing evidence that maternal prenatal stress may be hazardous to infant health. Changes in maternal hormonal and immune function as a result of stress may adversely affect the immune function and neurodevelopment of the fetus. Prenatal stress in the mother may produce lasting effects on the 1) infant's health status, 2) development and function of the infant's immune system, and 3) neurocognitive development of the infant. This article provides a synthesis of current human and animal literature on the effects of maternal prenatal stress on the developing fetus and the infant, with the resulting model evolving out of the framework of psychoneuroimmunology. The intent of the authors is an integrative review. The authors examined the following research question: What effect does maternal prenatal stress have on infants' immune development and neurodevelopment? All relevant studies were reviewed with no exclusion criteria. Major databases (CINAHL, MEDLINE, PsychINFO) were searched using a combination of the following key words: prenatal stress, cytokines, thymus, and infant neurodevelopment. Key words: infant outcomes, prenatal stress, psychneuroimmunology, theoretical model.

Factors Related to Positive Perceptions in Mothers of Children with Intellectual Disabilities

Factors Related to Positive Perceptions in Mothers of Children with Intellectual Disabilities

Richard P. Hastings, Rachel Allen, Kellyanne McDermott and Danielle Still

Department of Psychology, Centre for Behavioural Research Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, University of Southampton, UK

Paper accepted January 2002

Background Existing theoretical and empirical work in the intellectual disability field has paid little attention to parents’ positive perceptions of their child and the positive impact that the child may have on the family generally. The main aim of the present study was to explore the factors related to the mothers’ positive perceptions of their child with intellectual disability. Methods The mothers of 41 children with intellectual disabilities completed a self-report questionnaire that measured demographic factors, child demographic variables (including caregiving demand), social support, coping strategies and dimensions of positive perceptions.
Results Mothers’ perceptions of the child as a source of happiness/fulfilment and as a source of strength and family closeness were positively associated with reframing coping strategies. Mothers’ perceptions of the child as a source of personal growth and maturity were also positively associated with reframing coping strategies, the helpfulness and usefulness of support from family and friends, and the caregiving demand. Conclusions The relationship between coping and parental positive perceptions requires more
investigation both theoretically and empirically. This relationship may also have important implications for the support of families of children with intellectual disabilities.

To read entire paper, click attachment below.

INTERACTIVE TO INDEPENDENT LITERACY

INTERACTIVE TO INDEPENDENT LITERACY: A MODEL FOR DESIGNING LITERACY GOALS FOR CHILDREN WITH ATYPICAL COMMUNICATION

Joan N. Kaderavek
University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, USA

Paula Rabidoux
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA

Few models appropriately or adequately describe the literacy development experiences of children with atypical communication development, such as those with language impairment or severe disabilities. In this paper, the Interactive-to-Independent Model of literacy development is presented, influenced primarily by Vygotsky’s seminal theories of development through social
engagement and interaction. The Interactive-to-Independent Model can be used by teachers and speech-language pathologists as a foundation for designing literacy goals and interventions for children with atypical and/or more severe levels of communication impairment. Two case studies are presented, outlining the literacy goals for a child with mild to moderate mental retardation and a
child with autism. Researchers and professionals need to work actively to reverse the forces at work in our culture that lead to the ostracism of children who are different. (Duchan, Hewitt, and Sonnenmeier, 1994, p. 2)

To read entire paper, click attachment below.

Predictors of outcome among high functioning children with autism and Asperger syndrome

P. Szatmari,1 S.E. Bryson,2 M.H. Boyle,1 D.L. Streiner, 3 and E. Duku11

McMaster University, Canada; 2IWK Health Centre, Dalhousie University, Canada; 3Baycrest Centre for Geriatric
Care, Toronto, and University of Toronto, Canada

Background: The objective of this paper is to assess the extent to which measures of cognitive abilities taken in an inception cohort of young high functioning children with autism and Asperger syndrome predict outcome roughly two and six years later. Method: Children who received a diagnosis of autism or Asperger syndrome (AS) and who had a nonverbal IQ score in the ‘non-
retarded’ range were included in the inception cohort. Measures of language and nonverbal skills were taken when the children were 4–6 years of age and outcome assessments were completed when the children were 6–8 and 10–13 years of age. The three outcome measures consisted of scales of adaptive behaviours in socialisation and communication and a composite measure of
autistic symptoms (abnormal language, abnormal body and object use, difficulties relating to others, sensory issues and social and self-help difficulties). Results: The explanatory power of the predictor variables was greater for communication and social skills than for autistic symptoms. The power of prediction was stable over time but did differ by PDD subtype. In general, the association between language skills and outcome was stronger in the autism group than in the AS group. Conclusions: These results support the emphasis of early intervention programmes on language but more work needs to be done on understanding variables that influence outcome in
social skills and autistic behaviours, particularly in those with AS. Keywords: Autism, Asperger syndrome, longitudinal studies, trajectory, outcome, prognosis. Abbreviations: PDD: pervasive developmental disorder.

To read entire paper, click attachment below.

The revised Conner's Parent Rating Scale : factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity - CPRS-R

Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
August, 1998 by C. Keith Conners, Gill Sitarenios, James D.A. Parker, Jeffery N. Epstein

The initial Conners' Parent Rating Scale (CPRS) was developed as a comprehensive checklist for acquiring parental reports of the basic presenting problems for children referred to an outpatient psychiatric setting (Conners, 1970). This scale was used to form the basis for a detailed parental interview about the child's problems. In its original form, the CPRS contained items grouped in terms of problems with sleep, problems eating, problems with temper, problems with keeping friends, problems in school, etc. Later, an "additional" problems category was added that included items covering the cardinal symptoms of Since its introduction (Conners, 1970), the psychometric properties of the CPRS have been well studied. The original scoring procedure required grouping of items according to rationally derived problem groups. Though this scoring procedure was face valid, it was not until a series of factor-analytic studies of the CPRS were conducted (Blouin, Conners, Seidel, & Blouin, 1989; Conners, 1970, 1973) that an empirical scoring methodology was employed. These factor analyses of the CPRS (Blouin et al., 1989; Conners, 1970) utilized 316 clinic patients and 367 normal controls whose parents were recruited from Baltimore-area public schools. Using the 93 CPRS items as the unit of analysis, eight factors were identified: Conduct Disorder, Anxious-Shy, Restless-Disorganized, Learning Problems, Psychosomatic, Obsessive-Compulsive, Antisocial, and Hyperactive-Immature. The factor structure and norms from this sample have been used for scoring the 93-item CPRS (Conners, 1989).attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention.

Why Don't We Call Them Quirky?

As more and more kids live with labels, diagnoses and disorders, a growing number of experts are beginning to use antiquated terms like 'eccentric' and 'odd'
Like the conscientious pediatricians they are, Perri Klass and Eileen Costello keep up with the ever-evolving vocabulary of childhood dysfunction. They know all about autistic spectrum disorder, sensory integration dysfunction, pervasive developmental disorder, Asperger's syndrome and more. They've waded through the medical literature and analyzed the studies. They know the clinical nuances that distinguish the diagnoses. They've seen hundreds of kids, counseled and comforted hundreds of worried parents. And Klass and Costello know how scary it can be when those medical labels are applied to a young child for the first time. "The terminology has real value," says Klass, "but it is also terrifying." So the two Boston pediatricians chose a simpler term to lessen the terror for families. Their solution: just say "quirky."
That's the word Klass and Costello settled on as another way to describe and think about the hundreds of thousands of kids who are "outside the common patterns," as they put it in their book, "Quirky Kids," which will be in paperback this summer. These are kids (and more are being identified than ever) with a wide range of quirks and traits who occupy a gray zone of slippery, often overlapping diagnoses, like autistic spectrum disorder, that can leave parents frightened and confused. Kids with high IQs who can't read facial expressions, who prefer vacuum cleaners to toys, who hate the feel of sand or wind, who have no idea how to make friends, who may suffer daily over things that come easy to others. Kids whose parents sometimes wonder: is my child a socially awkward math genius destined for greatness, or a loner destined for loneliness? (Klass and Costello do not use "quirky" to describe the severe disability of classic autism, or major mental illness, such as bipolar.) "We wanted a term that was genuinely affectionate because we think the kids and families we talk to and write about are fascinating, sometimes heroic and very likable," says Klass. "We meant it to say in a positive way, these kids are different."
Klass and Costello are part of a growing effort by experts and families to remove the social stigma from problems like "pervasive developmental disorder" (box) by de-emphasizing the technical diagnoses and focusing on each child's individual strengths and weaknesses. "People see a label and they just follow what's under the label, but that's not who the person is," says Kendra Bartig, program director of the Brush Ranch School for students with learning differences, outside Santa Fe, N.M. Mel Levine, a pediatrician and longtime opponent of diagnostic labels, agrees. "Let's identify what someone needs and help them, rather than branding them," he says. Levine, a widely respected expert on learning problems, says terms like attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) "are basically pessimistic. They suggest that there is definitely something deviant about you, which can be a self-fulfilling prophecy." So "quirky" may be a clinically useless term (Levine prefers the equally inexact "eccentric"), but that's the point. It's not that a quirky child doesn't need treatment--she may--but the word can help the people in her life to see her for who she is. And it may also help the child feel comfortable being different.
For some parents, a label like "quirky" is better than a medical diagnosis. Evan Clucas memorized "The Night Before Christmas" at 2 and taught himself to read at 4. Today, at 14, he memorizes and re-enacts long scenes from "The Simpsons," excels at acting and art, but keeps to himself at school. He sometimes jumps up and down, flapping his arms, and he worries about contamination, opening some doors with his shirt over his hand. Evan's dad, Tom, a psychologist, has never had his son worked up by a doctor. "Being in the field, I wouldn't want him stuck with a diagnosis," Tom Clucas says. "If you stuck it in a school file, where people may use those labels in a pejorative way, they're maybe not as likely to see all the good things."
For other parents, "quirky" is a way to talk about their diagnosed kid without fear of prejudice. " 'Quirky' is a benign label," says psychologist John Sommers-Flanagan, coauthor of "Problem Child or Quirky Kid?" published in 2002. The word works for Dan Reiter. "Whenever you mention your son has a mental disorder, people think he's retarded. He becomes an undesirable," says Reiter, 43, of Easton, Pa., whose 11-year-old son Scott was diagnosed with high-functioning autism. "But 'quirky' gives a comfortable nickname to his diagnosis that people accept."
Veterans in the field see potential good in using a blanket term like "quirky" to describe kids, but they also see the limitations. "If by labeling people 'quirky' we could then get people to accept them more, that would be great," says Linda Andron, director of Focus on All Child Therapies, a community-based agency in Los Angeles that runs a variety of programs for families dealing with autism and related disorders. "The problem is, if you just call kids 'quirky,' will that get them any services?" Lots of so-called quirky kids need real therapy, regular medication and special education, and there's help available from state and local governments, much of it through the schools. But the Q word won't qualify a kid for any of it. The promoters of the term know that as well as anyone. " 'Quirky's' not a substitute. The diagnoses point you in the direction of the knowledge, experience and understanding that's out there," says Klass. "They get you to the specialists who know the most." In addition, Klass notes, for many families a diagnosis is a relief after years of uncertainty, and a connection to a larger community of other families facing the same problem.
What Klass and Costello offer parents in their smart and comprehensive book is a navigational guide to the land of the quirky. They cover it all, from the earliest signs that a child might be "different" to the unique challenges of quirky adolescence. But there is no straight path across this foggy terrain, and in the end it's the kids who lead the way. Kids like Evan Clucas, who says he's "a comedian who doesn't always get the laughs he deserves" and thinks "quirky" is an interesting-sounding word. So if he had to pick one word to describe himself, what would it be? "Splurch," he says.
Name That Disorder
A primer on some of the complex diagnoses being made these days among the rising population of 'quirky' kids.
PERVASIVE DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER-NOS

Some signs of autism (restricted interests, social impairment)
But not enough for the classic diagnosis of the condition

ASPERGERER'S SYNDROME

Normal language development, high IQ, impaired social
Interactions, preoccupations, motor delays or
Clumsiness

SENSORY INTEGRATION DYSFUNCTION

Oversensitive or undersensitive to sensory input such as
Noise or touch, out of sync with surrounding environment

AUTISTIC SPECTRUM DISORDERS

An unofficial but often-used term that covers everything
From classic autism to milder, more elusive diagnoses